Motivational Profiles in the Context of Exercise and Health: Leadership Aspects and Communication Skills of Personal Trainers

Dioneide Pereira da Silva^1*, Gertrudes Nunes de Melo², Diogo Barbosa de Albuquerque², Iraquitan de Oliveira Caminha², Glêbia Alexa Cardoso³, Juliana Carla Mendes de Melo⁴, Tiago José do Nascimento Caetano⁵, Joel Freires de Alencar Arrais⁶, António Fernando Boleto Rosado¹ and Paulo Jorge Martins^1
*Correspondence: Dioneide Pereira da Silva, Laboratory of Sports Psychology, CIPER, Faculty of Human Motricity-FMH, University of Lisbon- ULISBOA, Lisbon, Portugal, Tel: (+44) 07931783614, Email:

Keywords

Motivation, Leadership, Communication, Personalized Training Service.

Resumen

La actividad física regular es ampliamente reconocida por su papel en la prevención de enfermedades crónicas, la promoción de la salud mental y la mejora del bienestar. En este contexto, los entrenadores personales (PTs), particularmente en el ámbito de los Servicios de Entrenamiento Personalizado (PTS), desempeñan un papel estratégico en la promoción de la adherencia al ejercicio físico. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo describir cómo se manifiestan los estilos de liderazgo y la comunicación interpersonal de los PTs en los PTS, considerando los diferentes perfiles motivacionales de los clientes/practicantes. Este estudio cualitativo empleó entrevistas semiestructuradas con PTs y clientes/practicantes. Veinticuatro (24) sujetos participaron en el estudio: 12 PTs (con experiencia profesional en PTS) y 12 clientes/practicantes (usuarios de PTS) en diversos contextos (indoor, outdoor, and online), de ambos sexos y de diferentes edades (23 a 79 años). Tras aceptar participar, los PTs completaron una entrevista semiestructurada. El análisis de los datos se realizó utilizando la técnica de análisis de contenido de Bardin. Los resultados indicaron que la motivación es dinámica y está influenciada por factores individuales, interpersonales y contextuales. Elementos como la comunicación empática, el entrenamiento personalizado y el apoyo emocional continuo fueron identificados como centrales para fomentar la motivación intrínseca, el compromiso y la adherencia. El liderazgo de los PTs demostró ser un constructo multidimensional, que integra habilidades técnicas, inteligencia emocional y adaptabilidad relacional. La capacidad del PT para establecer conexiones interpersonales y ajustar su estilo de comunicación se consideró esencial. Los hallazgos refuerzan la importancia del papel del PT como facilitador conductual y promotor de la salud en programas personalizados de ejercicio físico.

Palabras clave: Motivación, Liderazgo, Comunicación, Servicios de Entrenamiento Personalizado.

Resumo

A prática regular de atividade física é amplamente reconhecida por seu papel na prevenção de doenças crônicas, promoção da saúde mental e melhora do bem-estar. Neste cenário, os Personal Trainers (PTs), especialmente no contexto do Serviços de Treinamento Personalizado (STP), assumem um papel estratégico na promoção da adesão à prática de exercícios físicos. Este estudo teve como objetigo descrever como os estilos de liderança do PT e a comunicação interpessoal se apresentam no STP, tendo em conta os diferentes perfis motivacionais dos clientes/praticantes. Este estudo qualitativo utilizou entrevistas semiestruturadas com PTs e clientes/praticantes. Participaram no estudo 24 (vinte e quatro) sujeitos, sendo 12 PTs (com tempo de experiência profissional no STP) e 12 Clientes/praticantes (utilizadores do STP), em diversos ambientes (indoor, outdoor, online), de ambos os sexos e de diferentes idades (23 a 79 anos). Após o aceite para participação, os PTs responderam a uma entrevista semiestruturada. A análise dos dados foi realizada com base na técnica de análise de conteúdo de Bardin. Os resultados indicaram que a motivação é dinâmica e influenciada por fatores individuais, interpessoais e contextuais. Elementos como comunicação empática, personalização dos treinos e suporte emocional contínuo foram apontados como centrais na promoção da motivação intrínseca, no comportamento e na adesão. A liderança dos PTs revelou-se um constructo multidimensional, que integra competências técnicas, inteligência emocional e adaptabilidade relacional. A capacidade do PT de estabelecer vínculos interpessoais e ajustar o estilo de comunicação foi considerada essencial. Os achados reforçam a importância do papel do PT como facilitador comportamental e promotor de saúde em programas de exercício físico personalizado.

Palavras-Chave: Motivação, Liderança, Comunicação, Serviços de Treino Personalizado.

Introduction

The positive association between regular physical exercise and the prevention of chronic diseases (such as cancer, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease), as well as population health and longevity, is evident in the literature (Welsh, Hammad, Piña & Kulinski, 2024). In addition to these benefits, physical activity contributes to the prevention of depression through neurobiological mechanisms while promoting social interaction and psychological well-being, consolidating an effective strategy for enhancing mental health (Pearce et al., 2022).

Despite the recognized health benefits of physical exercise, the World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes the need to strengthen public policies that encourage regular physical activity. In 2022, approximately 31.3% of adults worldwide did not engage in sufficient physical activity, an increase compared to the 23.4% recorded in 2000. This rise in inactivity complicates achieving the target proposed by the World Health Organization, which aims to reduce this number by 15% by 2030 (WHO, 2020).

A report by the WHO and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2023) revealed that 45% of Europeans aged 15 and over have never played sports, while more than a third do not meet the minimum levels recommended by the WHO (150 minutes of moderate activity per week). Furthermore, 31% of the EU population does not participate in any recreational physical activity.

According to data from the European Commission's Special Eurobarometer (2020), Portugal stands out among European countries in terms of physical inactivity, being one of the countries with the highest prevalence of sedentary lifestyles. At the European level, the report indicates that 59% of citizens say they "never" or "rarely" exercise, while only 41% do so at least once a week. In the specific case of Portugal, the data is even more worrying: 64% of the population reported never exercising, 8% said they exercised "rarely," 20% "somewhat regularly," and only 8% reported doing so "regularly" (European Commission, 2020).

These figures reinforce the importance of strategies that encourage the adoption of more active lifestyles in the country (Azevedo & Eira, 2021). In Portugal, promoting active habits is a public health priority (Program of the XXIV Portuguese Constitutional Government, 2024). Fitness centers have an important role in promoting physical activity, including adherence and frequency (Randa et al., 2020). However, the factors that influence whether or not attendance in these settings remain to be explored. A reduction in the regularity of exercise can compromise the population's physical activity levels, highlighting the need to investigate the factors that influence the continuation or discontinuation of this behaviour (Randa et al., 2020).

Scientific evidence shows that several factors can compromise adherence to physical exercise, including time availability, health conditions, financial constraints, sociocultural influences, difficulties adapting to training, and a lack of social support (Ezzat et al., 2022; Freitas et al., 2020; Pereira et al., 2022). These factors represent significant barriers that require attention from coaches, as they appear to directly affect exercisers' motivation, reducing the frequency of exercise and, in some cases, leading to exercise abandonment (Ezzat et al., 2022; Prestes et al., 2016).

In the context of physical exercise, several theories seek to explain the influence of motivation on adherence and maintenance over time (Liu et al., 2023). Among these approaches, Self-Determination Theory (SDT) stands out for its widespread acceptance, providing a comprehensive model that considers the complexity and multidimensionality of motivation. This theory allows for the identification of different motivational profiles in various contexts, contributing to a better understanding of the factors that influence regular physical activity (Emm-Collison et al., 2020).

An effective approach to addressing this issue includes tools that aid in the motivation and progression of exercisers, such as individualized workout prescriptions, performance monitoring, the use of technology, and interaction between professionals and exercisers (Verzani & Serapião, 2020). A positive relationship based on effective communication, ongoing support, and the adaptation of workouts to individual needs can significantly impact exercisers' perceptions of physical activity, making it more enjoyable and sustainable in the long term. Communication plays an essential role in effective management and leadership performance (Bowers & Seashore, 1996; Evangelia et al., 2013; Bartha & Perényi, 2015).

Studies indicate a positive relationship between leader communication and the effectiveness of subordinates in task execution (Raducan & Raducan, 2014). In this context, developing the interpersonal skills of PTS professionals becomes essential for ensuring participant satisfaction and loyalty, as a relationship of trust increases the chances of adopting an active lifestyle. When coaches simultaneously develop technical competencies and interpersonal communication skills, their work becomes more effective in promoting health, ensuring ongoing participant engagement, and facilitating sustained Behavioral change (Melinda, 2021). This integrated approach contributes significantly to combating sedentary lifestyles and promoting improvements in quality of life (Moen, Høigaard, & Peters, 2022), especially considering the different motivational profiles, goals, and interests of PTS participants. Based on the evidence, this study aimed to describe how PT leadership styles and interpersonal communication are presented in PTS, taking into account the various motivational profiles of clients/practitioners.

Materials and methods

To deepen the meaning of the responses, we used qualitative data analysis (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994), which was developed through narratives presented in interviews with PTs and clients/personalized training practitioners, with the goal of gaining a deeper understanding of the experiences of PTS users.

Ethical Procedures

This study was conducted in Portugal after approval by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Human Kinetics at the University of Lisbon, in compliance with the ethical principles based on the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, ensuring respect for autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and ethical justice [CIEFMH Opinion No. 16/2023].

Furthermore, qualitative validity criteria, such as completeness, representativeness, homogeneity, and relevance, were ensured to confirm that the data accurately reflected the participants' experiences. The collected information was stored following strict security protocols, with the data kept on password-protected devices and accessible only to the researchers involved.

All participants were fully informed of the research objectives, procedures, and their rights, including the ability to withdraw at any time. Acceptance to participate was formalized by signing the Free and Informed Consent Form (CILE), a document that guarantees the transparency of the study and the self-determination of those involved.

Participants and Data Collection

Twenty-four (24) individuals participated in the study, including 12 PTs (with professional experience in PTS) and 12 clients/practitioners (PTS users) in various settings (indoor, outdoor, online), of both genders and different ages (23 to 79 years). Inclusion criteria included all individuals who participated in the first phase of the study. Those not included in the initial sample were excluded. Participants were initially recruited by sending a second digital "Introduction and Invitation Letter" to the service/establishment managers, informing them of the study's objectives and the type of data collection. After authorization for participation and video and audio recording was obtained from those who participated in the first phase of the study (n=375), they were invited to voluntarily take part in this second phase of the study.

Procedures

After agreeing to participate and signing the Informed Consent Form (CILE), consenting to take part in the research at this stage, the PTs and clients/practitioners were asked to respond to a semi-structured interview. A script was created by the researcher that met qualitative validity standards (completeness, representativeness, homogeneity, and relevance), based on the factors of the scales used in the quantitative study. This script of questions served only as a guide to facilitate the natural flow of the conversation, as it is important to follow the participants' unexpected and unsolicited accounts rather than to ask specific questions in sequence (Smith et al., 2009). However, the interviewer was permitted to explore participants' accounts without a rigid sequence of questions (Smith et al., 2009).

The interviews were conducted by the lead researcher, who had previously received training in interviewing skills. The interviews took place in a private location, were audio-recorded (via the Zoom platform), and were held at a time and place convenient for the participants (PTs and clients/practitioners). This ensured a pleasant and non-intimidating atmosphere, thereby preserving the confidentiality of the information collected by the researcher (Article 13 of the General Data Protection Regulation [GDPR]). The average length of the interviews was approximately 20 minutes. Data collection from the interviews lasted about four weeks.

Interview Processing and Data Analysis

The interview transcripts were coded according to Biggerstaff and Thompson's (2008) stages of analysis. The objective of this study is not to generalize the results but to achieve a deeper understanding of the experiences from the participants' perspectives (Maykut and Morehouse, 1994).

After data collection, the material was explored primarily through a classificatory process aimed at reaching the core understanding of the text. At this stage, the researcher sought to structure empirical categories, which are meaningful expressions or words by which the content of a speech was organized (Bardin, 1997). The transcripts were coded following Biggerstaff and Thompson's (2008) stages of analysis. Categorization was performed using the thematic categorization technique, one of the central axes of content analysis, which allows for the organization of units of meaning based on the recurrence and relevance of the identified content (Bardin, 1997).

The final phase involved processing the results using the IRaMuTeQ (Interface de R pour les Analyses Multidimensionnelles de Textes et de Questionnaires) program/software (Camargo & Justo, 2013; Ratinaud, 2009; Reinert, 1990) and interpreting them, a crucial step for transforming raw data into structured knowledge.

Based on the results obtained, an interpretative analysis (unit of meaning and unit of significance) was performed, interconnecting the collected information and allowing for the development of new theoretical dimensions. According to Bardin (1997), content analysis is not limited to describing the data but seeks to identify underlying patterns, relationships, and meanings, contributing to a deeper understanding of the phenomenon studied.

Results and Discussion

This study sought to describe how PT leadership styles and interpersonal communication are presented in the PTS, considering the different motivational profiles of clients/practitioners. Using Bardin's Content Analysis, the interviewees' statements were organized to reveal deeper motivations. According to the objectives, the interview was based on the following main questions:

For PTs: How do you motivate your clients / practitioners during personalized training, and how would you describe your communication in the PTS?

For clients/practitioners: What motivates you most during personalized training, and how do you perceive the communication between you and your PT in the PTS?

Below are the narratives of PTs and clients/practitioners based on the categories investigated:

PT Narrative

Category 1 - ASPECTS OF LEADERSHIP AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS OF PTS

The data obtained from the interviews reveal that the PT's role in the PTS context goes beyond the technical prescription of physical exercises, involving motivational, communicational, relational, and leadership aspects. The analysis of the statements demonstrates that the professionals recognize their role as facilitators of the process of adherence and maintenance of the practice, mobilizing interpersonal skills and strategies tailored to the individuality of each client/practitioner. PT 9 reinforces this idea when he describes: "...alone, for other reasons, they would end up sabotaging themselves and giving up. And with us, they share this responsibility..." Therefore, a client/practitioner-centered service strengthens trust, which is crucial for adherence to exercise and the adoption of a healthy lifestyle (Teixeira et al., 2012; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003). Classic studies point to different leadership styles, such as autocratic and democratic, with distinct impacts (Vincent & Baptiste, 2021). While the autocratic style is more directive and favors individuals who demand discipline, the democratic style encourages participation and can promote greater autonomy and adherence. The professional's age and gender also influence leadership styles. Younger coaches tend to be more flexible, while more experienced ones are more structured (Li et al., 2021).

Choosing a PT Career

The motivation for choosing a PT career is strongly anchored in personal values, such as a passion for helping people, a connection to the healthcare field, and a desire for transformation through physical exercise. These motivations reflect components of self-determination and meaning in work, as highlighted by Ryan and Deci (2017), who point out that the alignment between purpose and profession fosters engagement and quality of care. PT 2: "...I like working with people, because I think it's an incredible profession in the sense of being able to change people's lifestyles [...] having a mission in society..."

Motivation Strategies Utilized by Trainers

Regarding strategies to motivate clients and trainees, trainers report varied and personalized approaches, from verbal encouragement and positive reinforcement to the use of humor and daily challenges. These practices align with the literature that links motivational support with autonomy, competence, and social connection (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Furthermore, Turnnidge and Côté (2017) argue that effective trainers adopt transformational leadership styles, adjusting their approach to the profile and emotional needs of the trainee. Observing the participants' statements, various motivational strategies are identified, which are associated with dialogue, humor, and technology:

PT 1: exemplifies an approach based on information and dialogue: "I motivate by informing people about the benefits of physical activity, by talking right there before class..."

PT 3: "...I use a slightly different approach because I really like to use humor to my advantage since training can't be mandatory..."

PT 10: The choice of strategy varies according to the profile of the client/practitioner: "Today, perhaps younger people are more connected to technology. I can use more technologies that truly allow for greater engagement [...] but older people don't have that connection."

These experiences demonstrate that, given different motivational profiles, the PT's role is crucial in balancing extrinsic stimuli and promoting intrinsic motivation, contributing to adherence and continued exercise. These results are consistent with the literature, especially with Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), which indicates that person-centered leadership styles and empathetic communication contribute to greater exerciser engagement. In this sense, PT 2 articulates this idea well and also highlights the importance of recognizing the client/practitioner profile: "... Whether they're young or older, whether they're highly motivated or not. It varies a lot! Beyond communication, assessment can also be a motivational strategy. Older adults ... what they want is to be able to go to the supermarket. They seek companionship ..."

Methods for Enhancing Client/Practitioner Performance

Monitoring client/practitioner performance is primarily conducted through feedback, physical assessment, and relational observation. The development of a person-centered approach, based on listening and continuous monitoring, aligns with the "motivational discourse" model, or as it is presented in the literature (individualized coaching), in which the professional serves as a mediator of progress (Moen, Høigaard & Peters, 2022). PT 2 exemplifies this practice: "We always work in some way with results, right? [...] So, I work with assessments and results so that the client can see that their effort and my work are paying off..." PT 1 observes: "I think that when students come to PT, they're not only looking for physical activity but also to relieve their daily stresses. They want to talk, discuss work, daily life, and family relationships. So, when we bring all of this together, it ends up being a very enjoyable and motivating moment..."

Adapting Strategies to the Individual Needs of PTS Users

When adapting training programs, professionals demonstrate sensitivity to the context and particularities of each client/practitioner, using conversations, subjective perceptions, and formal instruments such as anamnesis. This highlights the recognition of the importance of individualization, as suggested by Teixeira et al. (2012), who emphasize that personalized strategies are more effective in maintaining active behavior. In this regard, PT 10 demonstrates its work methodology based on planning: "...We always start with an initial assessment, where I evaluate all health parameters. I also personalize the program to the individual's goal (...) I prescribe the program according to the methodology I defined in this periodization and I prescribe the training unit daily..."

The literature reinforces that personalized strategies are more effective because they consider the specific needs and goals of practitioners (Stalonas, Johnson & Christ, 1978; Pollock et al., 1998). Individualized prescription, with continuous monitoring and feedback, is considered a promoter of motivation (Verzani & Serapião, 2020), with personalized support being a decisive factor for long-term adherence (Teixeira et al., 2012; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Furthermore, the role of PT in health promotion goes beyond the physical—it also contributes to general and psychological well-being (Newsome et al., 2024).

PT's Recognition of Client/Practitioner Efforts

A relevant aspect identified is the appreciation of client/practitioner efforts. Most PTs recognize the importance of positive reinforcement, whether verbal, symbolic, or expressed through body language. Recent studies highlight that recognition and positive feedback strengthen the perception of competence and sustain motivation (Lemelin et al., 2023; Peris Delcampo et al., 2024; Berntzen & Lagestad, 2025). In this sense, PTs also recognize the motivating role of positive reinforcement: "My positive feedback is often through touch [...] sometimes a hand on the back, even during the exercise itself [...] I think touch ultimately brings us closer to the client and distinguishes us in this work" (PT 11).

PTs' Communication Skills

In the field of communication, professionals demonstrate awareness of the need to adapt their language to the student's profile, avoiding technical jargon when necessary and also using nonverbal language as a tool. PT 3 illustrates this practice well when he states, "There are people for whom I have to use layman's language, for example: 'Are you feeling the 'potato' in your leg?' Just as there are people for whom I use completely scientific language. And there you have it, they get along well with it..."

Interpersonal communication, therefore, is an essential component of PT practice. A recent study with 388 participants in South Korea reinforces that effective interaction between trainer and trainee promotes adherence and builds a positive motivational environment (Kim et al., 2024).

Contextual variables, such as the training environment, also impact this communication (MacNamara & Collins, 2011; McMahon et al., 2024). Indoor spaces favor greater control and proximity in interaction, and consequently, in communication between the PT and client/practitioner (Zhang & Ruiz Ariza, 2024). A study comparing the immediate effects of physical exercises performed in natural environments (such as parks and trails) and indoor environments (such as gyms or closed rooms) showed that outdoor exercises promote greater immediate psychological benefits than those performed indoors (Peddie et al., 2024). Although outdoor physical training requires adaptations to external interference (Peddie et al., 2024; Gong et al., 2024), it can be used as a strategy to promote mental health and well-being (Hartman Nugraha et al., 2024). In the online context, a training environment is widespread today, technological mediation poses challenges to building interpersonal bonds (Isler et al., 2019; Branco, 2024).

Adapted and effective communication contributes to building a bond between coach and practitioner and strengthens instruction (Duda & Appleton, 2016; Wang et al., 2024). Furthermore, active listening skills and the ability to adjust language are seen as essential for effective professional performance (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980; Gong et al., 2024). Davisa et al. (2023) also emphasize that communication tailored to individual needs improves the perception of service delivery and, consequently, promotes practitioner engagement. Thus, the quality of communication established by the PT becomes an important factor in the practitioner's retention in the training program.

Although there is consensus on the importance of communication for motivation, studies such as those by Martinez Gonzalez Morales et al. (2021) and Knox et al. (2023), indicate that the factors supporting long-term adherence are not yet fully defined, suggesting that communication must always be in tune with other contextual and individual variables.

In this context, long working hours can harm the quality of interpersonal relationships. Excessive daily consultations often lead to fatigue, which can reduce a professional's emotional engagement with their clients/practitioners (Calesco & Both, 2022). PT 4 warns: "We have a certain limit to the amount of care we can provide. [...] There are many hours of work per day [...] And when I'm tired, I can't give the same level of dedication..." However, there is still no consistent evidence in the literature proving a direct relationship between factors such as length of professional experience and workload, and the leadership, communication, and approach strategies adopted by coaches, reflecting on the individual characteristics of clients/practitioners. In this sense, these aspects reinforce the importance of ongoing training and structured reflective processes throughout professional practice (Knox et al., 2024; Danielsen, Tjønndal & Røsten, 2025).

Quality of Coach-Practitioner Interpersonal Relationships

The relationship between professionals and clients/practitioners has been described in various ways, from friendships to strictly professional attitudes. What stands out in our study, however, is the recognition of the importance of mutual respect, trust, and ethical boundaries in managing this relationship as central components of the quality of the coach-athlete relationship (Shanmuganathan-Felton, Felton, & Jowett, 2022; Shanmuganathan-Felton & Jowett, 2022). Therefore, PTs interviewed report bonds that often extend beyond the training environment and emphasize the importance of these bonds for motivating clients/practitioners. Others point to the need for balance and boundaries in the interaction:

PT 1 "...We also establish a bond of friendship... I share a more intimate relationship with my students, going out for dinner, lunch, and shows... this not only builds student loyalty... but it's also part of my personal satisfaction...".

PT 2 emphasizes the importance of building rapport with the client/practitioner: "...they need to connect with us. They need to appreciate our presence, the way we speak, and our approach...".

PT 4 "...It's a friendly yet assertive relationship. It's intimate, but without losing focus on the training...".

PT 6 "...Sometimes people desire more attention, and sometimes I'm unable to provide the attention they expect from me ...".

These findings align with studies indicating that the quality of the relationship between the coach and practitioner significantly contributes to satisfaction, engagement, and continued sports practice (Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Jowett & Felton, 2019, 2022).

PTs' Perception of Client/Practitioner Feelings During Sessions

When describing how they believe clients/practitioners feel during training, PTs highlight well-being, satisfaction, motivation, and a sense of belonging. Similarly, clients/practitioners may experience various feelings during training, ranging from initial discouragement to motivation and well-being at the end of sessions.

PT 6's report highlights that practitioners' emotional states can vary throughout the session, influenced by physical and psychological factors. As he observes, "the client may arrive discouraged and become more motivated throughout the process... And then the energy at the end will always be more aligned with the positive energy during training." However, he also acknowledges that moments of frustration can arise, specially when faced with physical limitations: "Discouragement can be due to the discomfort of the workout itself. It can be frustrating for some when they have to push those limits." When recounting the case of a client/trainer with shoulder pain, he states: "He left discouraged... he's frustrated. Because he was doing well and started to feel pain..."

Emotional fluctuations throughout a workout are a widely debated topic in the literature. According to Parfitt, Rose, and Burgess (2006), the emotional state experienced during physical activity is conditioned by several factors, such as current physical conditioning, the perception of individual competence, the sensation of pain, and the meaning attributed to the effort performed. Furthermore, situations of physical discomfort or dissatisfaction with performance can trigger negative emotions that affect the willingness to participate in future training sessions. Reinforcing the role of the professional as an agent promoting positive experiences, the application of differentiated communication techniques can improve the quality of interaction in training, emphasizing the importance of the motivational climate (Allan, Turnnidge & Côté, 2021).

The positive environment created by the trainer helps alleviate initial demotivation and facilitates an emotional transition during training, as demonstrated in a study involving physical activity programs for middle-aged women (Moustaka et al., 2012). Similarly, a meta-analysis examining 82 studies, covering a total of 26,378 athletes from various sports and competitive levels, indicated that the motivational climate fostered by coaches is associated with the subjective well-being of athletes (Lochbaum & Sisneros, 2024). This idea is reinforced in our study by the statement of Trainer 5, who observes that the coach's emotional state influences the client/practitioner: "...I always arrive at my classes very motivated, which makes my client feel very comfortable..."

However, unrealistic expectations can hinder continuation, as can a lack of empathy from the professional during treatment. "...there are clients/practitioners who will come in looking for more immediate results, wanting to lose weight quickly... they won't stick with it for long..." (PT 6). He also adds: "...I've never stopped to think exactly what the client/practitioner is feeling during the workout, but I realize that sometimes they may be discouraged..." This is because extrinsic motivations, such as aesthetics or social pressure, do not sustain long-term adherence, unlike intrinsic motivations, such as pleasure and personal well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ingledew & Markland, 2008).

Essential Qualities of the Trainer and Their Self-Perception in the PTS

Professional training practice is shaped by a set of skills widely recognized as essential, including technical knowledge, empathy, emotional intelligence, communication, and ethics. These skills not only ensure adequate exercise prescription, but also create an environment conducive to the development of the client/practitioner, marked by trust, acceptance and encouragement of challenges (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Moen et al., 2022).

The interviewees' narratives reinforce the importance of these attributes. PT10 emphasizes the importance of conveying trust from the first contact with the client/practitioner. He states, "I think the first impression I try to convey is confidence and structured speech... My speech must be very strong and focused, with technical support that instills confidence..." This emphasis on clarity and technical support highlights the relationship between effective communication and creating a safe environment.

Furthermore, empathy emerges as a central element for successful professional practice. PT4 states, "...the empathy of understanding the student as a complex being and recognizing that this complex being deserves special attention..." This perspective highlights the importance of perceiving the client/practitioner as an individual, sensitively recognizing their needs and experiences in an adaptive way.

The ability to adapt is equally valued and frequently mentioned as a distinguishing quality. PT2 observes, "...the strongest thing I consider myself as a professional is adapting to the client..." He further adds, "...The vast majority, I have a good relationship with. We are what the clients need… so, in some way, we need to be there for them…” These reflections point to the importance of flexibility and interpersonal connection in the coach-trainee relationship.

Finally, professional ethics are identified as an essential foundation for performance. As PT7 emphasizes, "Professional ethics and being punctual, clean, and organized..." This approach reflects a commitment to standards of conduct that reinforce credibility and respect in the professional environment.

The Professional Experience of a PT in Managing Different Motivational Profiles

There is a consensus that technical knowledge is essential. However, qualities such as empathy, emotional intelligence, ethics, and effective communication are equally valued. Professionals point out that a good PT must be able to understand the human being holistically and adapt to diverse contexts. These skills are described as fundamental not only for safe prescriptions but also for building an environment of trust, acceptance, and challenge appropriate for the practitioner's development (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Moen et al., 2022).

The PTs interviewed attach great importance to their experience, specially in managing different motivational profiles and handling unexpected situations. Experience, in the PTs' narratives, is seen as a source of practical learning, which complements technical training and strengthens the adaptability of training. Valente et al. (2023) demonstrate that experienced coaches who participate in continuing education programs are more effective in building motivational environments and communicating with athletes-an important factor when working with diverse profiles. A recent study found that experienced coaches emphasize emotional and relational factors, in addition to physical fitness, as crucial to effectively adapting training to individual needs, reinforcing that performance improvement does not depend solely on physical parameters but requires a holistic approach that includes emotional and interpersonal factors (Anyadike-Danes, Donath, & Kiely, 2023).

In this line of understanding, the American Institute of Health Care Professionals (AIHCP, 2024) emphasises that elements such as the clear definition of personal goals and alignment with one’s own individual values are decisive factors in ensuring ongoing commitment and genuine engagement with the practice of physical exercise. In the contemporary context, a comprehensive approach to health must encompass the whole human being — including physical, mental, spiritual and emotional aspects — with the aim of promoting sustainable well-being over time. Furthermore, professional experience is regarded as essential for meeting the diverse human needs involved.

The narratives of those interviewed in our study reinforce the importance of professional experience and adapting physical training to the diverse situations that arise during training sessions.

"I think that with work experience, we become a bit of a 'chameleon' and manage to adapt our gender and communication style to each person... you have to have the ability to listen... and to 'clear yourself of it' between appointments to arrive with positive energy for the next appointment." (PT10)

"The client has shoulder inflammation, and the strengthening has already greatly improved his daily life. For example, he couldn't even drive or carry his daughter, who is sitting on his lap. But some days, he can't perform a certain movement... I'm not going to change the entire plan because the training is meeting his needs... If he worked a little more intensely... and that bothered him, it will only get in the way... then I make an adjustment at that moment so he can complete the training. I check if the discomfort persists or if his well-being improves..." (PT9)

Below is Figure 1 with a summary of the Units of Sense and Meaning of the PTs’ narratives.

Client/practitioner narrative

Category2-CLIENT/PRACTITIONER MOTIVATIONAL ASPECTS AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN PTS - CLIENT/PRACTITIONER PERSPECTIVE

Client/practitioner reasons for choosing PTS

This study showed that choosing PTS is directly linked to motivational, disciplinary, and interpersonal connection factors. Many clients and practitioners reported difficulties maintaining engagement in conventional gyms and found PTS to be a more engaging, comfortable, and effective environment for achieving goals. As can be seen in the statements of clients and practitioners (4): "My PT works very personally to my current needs. This is a huge differentiator compared to conventional gyms, where there would rarely be such a quick, immediate, and specialized adaptation." (6): "I don't feel comfortable in the gym; I feel isolated. I'm obese, and I feel isolated because of that. It was about looking for someone to help me." These reports reveal that client and practitioner motivation in PTS is dynamic, influenced by multiple factors, and changing over time. Initially, extrinsic aspects such as the PT's support, the family environment, and commitment to training have a strong impact. Progressively, these external motivations give way to more intrinsic motivations, as proposed by Deci and Ryan (2000) in Self-Determination Theory, and corroborated by Ingledew and Markland (2008) when investigating how different reasons for participation influence Behavioral regulation and, consequently, adherence to physical exercise.

The findings corroborate a systematic review of 66 empirical studies on motivation for exercise and physical activity, which investigated how different forms of motivational regulation (intrinsic, identified, introjected, and external) influence exercise behaviour (Teixeira et al., 2012). Furthermore, the study emphasizes the importance of environments that support the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness to promote autonomous motivation and, consequently, the maintenance of exercise behaviour, reinforcing individualized support as a central factor in adherence to and maintenance of regular exercise (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Although fitness centres with conventional training in Portugal have the potential to positively influence exercise practices (Randa et al., 2020), the results of our study indicate that personalized training in these settings and elsewhere stands out for its ability to offer individualized support, fostering engagement and interpersonal connections -key elements for sustaining motivation.

Motivation Strategies Used by PTs - Client/Practitioner Perspective

Clients and practitioners recognize in PTs a style that resembles transformational leadership, characterized by individualized support, motivational inspiration, and sensitivity to the needs of others (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Subsequent research adapted this Bass and Riggio model to the sports context, where studies indicate that athletes perceive transformational coaches as more effective in promoting intrinsic motivation and personal development among team members. This leadership style has been associated with better levels of engagement, satisfaction, and performance in sports contexts (Turnnidge & Côté, 2017). This sensitivity is also reflected in the exercise context in the perception of client/practitioner 5, who reports: "My PT's attitude makes my training go better... the fact that he tells me something provides motivation..." The results of our study also corroborate self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), suggesting that PTs who adopt a transformational leadership style and communicate empathetically tend to promote greater practitioner engagement.

Communication Skills in PTS: A Client/Practitioner Narrative

Interpersonal communication, therefore, is an essential component of a PT's practice. Contextual variables, such as the training environment, also impact this communication (Gonçalves et al., 2009; Pereira, 2019; Rhind & Jowett, 2012; Shapie et al., 2025). The authors add that, depending on the location (gyms, online, or at home), these variables interfere with training logistics and can significantly influence the way the trainer communicates, shaping interactions that directly impact the trainer's motivation and adherence. Client/Practitioner 5 acknowledges: "I like taking online classes, but [...] being physically present is very different from being solely online [...] the communication is different..." This perception highlights how physical presence can intensify the connection between PT and client/practitioner. On the other hand, client/practitioner 6 emphasizes that training at home can increase commitment to practice: "Coming home at the end of the day, even tired [...] forces me to stick to my sports routine [...] try to do a little better...".

According to Duda & Appleton (2016), adapted and effective communication contributes to building a bond between coach and practitioner and strengthens instruction. This statement is consistent with our results and those of other studies, which show that active listening skills and the ability to adjust language are also seen as essential for effective professional performance (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980).

Duda and Treasure (2010) explore how coaches can create motivational environments that promote high-quality athlete engagement, reinforcing that adapting communication to each individual's specific needs improves the perception of understanding and encourages greater engagement. In the field of communication, this perception is confirmed by PTS users. Client/practitioner 9 reports: "My PT speaks technical language and then explains it in a format that I can understand, as a layperson..." Thus, the quality of communication established by the PT is an important factor in client/practitioner retention, especially when considering the individual characteristics of the practitioner.

Cultural Influences in PTS: Client/Practitioner Perception Considering the PT's Nationality

Regarding cultural influences on communication, the vast majority of clients/practitioners indicate that the PT's nationality is not a determining factor, as long as there is language proficiency and good communication skills. However, elements such as humor, friendliness, creativity, and expressiveness are often cited as more influential on motivation and interpersonal relationships than nationality itself, as recent research has shown (Pereira, 2019; Shapie et al., 2025). The use of humor in leadership can foster innovation and motivation, as reflected in the participants' statements:

"I don't think I'd have any problems as long as I spoke the same language (...) If I didn't understand or master the language, I'd be bothered. So, it's not about nationality..." (client/practitioner 3). Client/practitioner 6 reinforces this: "There are cultural issues in each country, and I respect that. There's a difference between having a Brazilian PT or a Portuguese PT; I don't see any difference..." Client/practitioner 4 observes: "...In Germany, because it's a more methodical country, we might think that perhaps the training would be less creative. But I think there must be professionals who stand out for their creativity there too... It's not easy to find a professional who has affinities... even if they're from the same country and culture...". Client/practitioner 11 reflects on the motivational style of a Brazilian PT: "...Who did we enjoy working with more? The Brazilian, because of the rhythm, the way she speaks, I don't know! I can't say, maybe the words. '...let's go! Let 's go! Let's go now! The motivation is much more lively than the Portuguese (...) I think it's a cultural and personality adaptation..."

Other reports reinforce that nationality, in itself, is not significant but can influence aspects such as mood or expressiveness. Client/practitioner 7 comments: "...nationality influences everything in life (...) It must influence, I don't know, mood. The disposition, which differs from some people to others (...), but not specifically in training." Despite this, there is recognition that cultural proximity can facilitate the creation of bonds, as Client/practitioner 9 points out, expanding on this view: "...when we interact with people of Latin origin, it is easier because the culture is more similar (...), then, in this closeness, people can be more vulnerable. They can show their feelings more..., but I also don't think that's significant..." Some participants also emphasize the need for the practitioner to adapt to the client/practitioner's preferences, regardless of nationality. Client/practitioner 10 explains: "...it depends a bit, even on the client/practitioner's needs. So, if the practitioner is dealing with a client who requires discipline, perhaps some [communication styles] aren 't appropriate. But the others could demonstrate empathy, so to speak..." This idea is reinforced by Client/practitioner 11, who points out that adaptation also depends on the practitioner's personality: "...We really liked the first [Brazilian], but we didn't adapt to the second because of personality issues..."

The literature already highlights the importance of cultural sensitivity in mental health care and education (Cross et al., 1989; Sue, 2001). This model emphasizes that cultural competence is a dynamic and ongoing process, requiring commitment and deliberate action to improve the effectiveness of services provided to diverse populations.

However, more recent studies indicate that aspects such as technical knowledge, empathy, and trust are more relevant to practitioner loyalty and adherence than the professional's cultural background (Carvalho et al., 2019; Campos, 2021).

In this sense, corroborating the narrative of our study, which shows that mastery of communication, empathy, and adaptability is more valued than nationality. Jowett and Cockerill (2003) also emphasize that effective communication between coach and practitioner is directly associated with building trust, empathy, and adapting to individual needs. According to authors, these elements are fundamental to strengthening interpersonal bonds and promoting continuous motivation, being more relevant to the practitioner's experience than characteristics such as age or nationality (Gonçalves et al., 2009; Pereira, 2019).

This shows us that the role of communication goes beyond technical instruction, also functioning as a link of connection, trust, and motivation in the relationship between PT and client/practitioner.

Methods to Enhance Performance – Client/Practitioner Perception

Client/practitioner perception of the PT method in relation to their performance is largely achieved through feedback, physical assessment, and relational observation. Creating a personalized method, based on active listening and ongoing monitoring, reflects the “individualized coaching” model, where the professional facilitates the practitioner's development. This evidence can be confirmed in studies that explored how coaches' leadership behavior affects athletes' performance progress (Moen, Høigaard & Peters, 2014; 2022). Furthermore, studies suggest that democratic and supportive leadership styles are positively correlated with athletes' intrinsic motivation, satisfaction, and the quality of the coach-athlete relationship. These leadership styles emphasize active athlete participation, open communication, and emotional support, factors that contribute to a more effective training environment and practitioner development (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980). This is reflected in our study in the narrative of client/practitioner 5 when he reports: "The PT adapts to the person they're training. So, they end up being a bit of a 'psychologist,' right?"

Gender differences also influence client/practitioner perceptions, with trends indicating more empathetic and motivational leadership from women and a more performance-oriented approach from men (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001). The authors emphasize that these differences stem from social norms and gender expectations that shape leadership behaviors. Client/practitioner 6 reinforces this idea: "My PT cares about human well-being. [...] Women are more focused than men. [...] I say this because I understand this feminine aspect well, the rigor, the way assessments are conducted..."

Adapting Strategies to the Individual Needs of PTS Users - Client/Practitioner Reports

The clients' and practitioners' perspectives on the adaptation of training by PTs are strongly linked to the physical and emotional conditions of PTS users. The PT's ability to adjust intensity, exercise type, and approaches based on limitations, pain, or life stages reflects an individual-centered practice. This promotes the pillars of self-determined motivation-autonomy, competence, and belonging (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Client/Practitioner 8 emphasizes: "...At the beginning of the workout, she always asks if we're okay, if we feel any pain, and if we have any injuries from the previous workout."

The literature reinforces that personalized strategies are more effective for promoting overall health and preventing chronic diseases because they consider the specific needs and goals of practitioners (Pollock et al., 1998; Stalonas, Johnson & Christ, 1978). Individualized prescription, with continuous monitoring and feedback, is regarded as a promoter of motivation (Kwan & Bryan, 2010; Marcus et al., 1998; Ryan & Deci, 2017; Segar, 2015). Individualized support is relevant for motivating the practice of physical exercise in promoting psychological well-being, which is considered an important factor for long-term adherence (Ryan & Deci, 2017; Teixeira et al., 2012).

Recognition of Efforts by the PT - Client/Practitioner Narrative

Recognition of these efforts was highlighted as an important motivating factor by clients/practitioners. Appreciating achievements, even small ones, proved essential for maintaining engagement and strengthening the bond between practitioner and client . As reported: "Yes, of course! Always! Even in the most difficult moments. There's always a word of encouragement, and then a word of satisfaction and support..." (Client/Practitioner 2). Such practices foster feelings of competence and belonging-foundations of intrinsic motivation-and are essential for strengthening bonds and self-esteem, according to Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000; 2017). However, not all practitioners require constant reinforcement. Client/Practitioner 5 describes: "Currently, I don't feel much of this motivational factor, positive feedback. I motivate myself too [...] it has to do with my personality. I'm also motivated that way..."

The identified motivational profile highlights the importance of tailoring intervention strategies to the motivational characteristics of clients/practitioners. These findings are corroborated by the analysis of motivational factors associated with physical activity during the second period of confinement, within the context of the restrictions imposed by the pandemic. Even given the limitations of the lockdown, many individuals maintained or started exercising, motivated primarily by health concerns, the pursuit of better physical fitness, and the need to reduce anxiety (Silva et al., 2020). These results reinforce the importance of personalizing the strategies adopted, considering the degree of autonomy and the level of encouragement needed by each client/practitioner.

Quality of Relationships in PTS: Client/Practitioner Descriptions

From the clients' and practitioners' perspectives, this interaction is predominantly perceived as professional, yet permeated by empathy, attention, and, at times, affection. Client/Practitioner 7 states: "...I wouldn't call it friendship... when providing the service, I think both parties must maintain a professional attitude [...] there's genuine concern. And I recognize that..." Client/Practitioner 9 describes a more affectionate connection: "...we've developed a fondness, a care for each other... this makes us mindful of our limits... this relationship has transcended our professional training..." These results align with research demonstrating how a quality relationship between coach and athlete plays a fundamental role in promoting satisfaction, engagement, and persistence in practice (Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Jowett & Felton, 2019). Studies emphasize that a high-quality coach-athlete relationship is essential not only for athletic performance but also for the psychological well-being of athletes. Elements such as mutual trust, shared goals, and effective cooperation are fundamental to building a strong and productive coach-athlete partnership.

Client/Practitioner Self-Perception of Sensations During Personal Training Sessions

Regarding client/practitioner self-perception of sensations during PTS sessions, most users of this service describe positive feelings associated with the training sessions, although some experience initial moments of demotivation. Client/Practitioner 1 states: "...I feel light and well-disposed..." Client/Practitioner 4 comments: "...I feel calm, comfortable knowing that I'm there to take that medication that isn't the best, but I trust the person administering the medication..." Client/Practitioner 2 emphasizes: "...I end up feeling very motivated every day..." Client/Practitioner 3 associates exercise with general well-being: "...I feel good, I feel happy...I feel so cared for, protected..." Emotional swings are also common, as Client/Practitioner 11 reports: "...there are three phases... not wanting to be there, getting better in the middle, and finishing feeling excited... it's a roller coaster..." Client/Practitioner 10 states: "...it's a lot of effort to then feel good... okay, look, I've freed myself! In this case, the endorphins. I feel good and strong..." He also adds: "In two months, I haven't lost any weight. But you have to feel where it's going... you eat, but it keeps going..." These perceptions show that the PT's emotional support directly influences the practitioner's experience, even when physical goals have not yet been achieved. Studies show that the guidance and emotional support provided by the trainer significantly contribute to maintaining motivation and experiencing more pleasurable experiences during physical activity (Deci & Ryan, 2017; Silva et al., 2020). Client/Practitioner 5 illustrates this by recalling: "... I already had a great progresso when I started training because I weighed seventy-two kilos, and today I weigh fifty-three, and this evolution has been happening gradually. Currently, it's more of a maintenance exercise... I really made a lot of progress at the beginning, but then I stopped..."

Support for autonomy and positive feedback, according to Edmunds, Ntoumanis, and Duda (2008), strengthens well-being and sustained motivation. The study suggests that the frequency of physical exercise may have a dose-dependent effect on reducing symptoms of depression, highlighting the importance of regular physical activity as a complementary intervention in the treatment of depression (Legrand and Heuze, 2007).

In other words, there is a proportional relationship between regular exercise and improvement in depression-as if it were a "dose" of medication: the more regular the activity, the more effective it is as a complement to depression treatment (in addition to medication or psychotherapy) (Randa et al., 2020). They also emphasize that feeling emotionally supported promotes engagement and reduces dropout rates, even when faced with physical or emotional challenges.

Essential Qualities for a Good PT: Understanding the Client/Practitioner

The most valued qualities in a PT's practice, from the perspective of clients/practitioners, include up-to-date technical knowledge, empathy, active listening, and personalized prescription skills. The combination of technical competence and interpersonal sensitivity is seen as essential for effective work. According to Moen, Høigaard, and Peters (2022), the blend of these competencies is fundamental to the success of the coach-practitioner relationship. The authors emphasize that technical competence alone is insufficient in the context of coaching (motivational speech) and individualized physical exercise; it must be combined with sensitivity to recognize and meet the specific needs of each practitioner. Client/practitioner 12 states: "...you have to be an empathetic person, right? To have this close relationship between the PT and the client/practitioner..."Client/practitioner 2 highlights empathy in the professional's conduct: "...the PT empathetically understands that the student's goal may not be to achieve a mega-body workout... there must be respect for the student's limits and objectives." Technical ability is underscored by Client/practitioner 9, who states: "...having enough technical knowledge to find the right training within the student's limitations...". The humanized and personalized approach is also emphasized by Client/practitioner 3: "...someone who knows how to relate, knows how to communicate, and respects others... considering each person individually, right? That's essential..." He further adds: "...a good professional needs proper training that prioritizes health and well-being...". These narratives demonstrate an alignment between PTs' and clients'/practitioners' perceptions of the essential qualities for effective and motivating professional practice. The PTS, therefore, emerges as a space where technical knowledge is combined with empathy and active listening, promoting an environment conducive to adherence, motivation, and well-being.

The Professional Experience of the PT from the Client/Practitioner's Perspective

Professional experience is equally valued by clients and practitioners, who associate this factor with the trainers' trust, confidence, and adaptability. This group also links the PT's length of experience to the ability to adapt to diverse profiles, the safe delivery of personalized training, and the management of specific situations, such as injuries or physical limitations (Pollock et al., 1998; Stalonas, Johnson & Christ, 1978). Reasons such as health, aesthetics, and well-being are crucial for regular practice, and personalized coaching significantly contributes to practitioners' intrinsic motivation (Costa Daniele et al., 2019; Moen, Høigaard & Peters, 2022). Client 7 illustrates this transition well: "...I have very severe scoliosis [...] it has to be a workout adapted to this structure that is not aligned..." Client/practitioner 10 adds: "I have a sort of older injury here that isn't being properly treated, and when I complained, he immediately made this adjustment."

Studies reinforce the importance of coaches adopting a person-centered approach, sensitive to practitioners' needs, to promote engagement, well-being, and performance (Turnnidge & Côté, 2017; Ryan & Deci, 2017). This supports these perceptions, indicating a professional effectiveness depends on the integration of practical experience, ongoing training, and sensitivity to practitioners' emotional needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Teixeira et al., 2020; Rodrigues et al., 2020; Fransen et al., 2017). However, many also recognize that experience alone does not guarantee service quality. Client 5 emphasizes the combination of experience and training: "...not only is professional experience important, but also the training a person has... a PT with professional experience and good training is much better equipped to perform their job..." However, Client 9 offers a critical view of the length of experience: "...experience is linked to good service, but it is not the only factor, nor the most decisive one ... I can have a professional with five years of experience who has much more knowledge... than a professional with ten or fifteen years of experience who is complacent..."

Recent studies in the sports and exercise fields emphasize a professional experience, when combined with interpersonal skills and a commitment to continuous development, is fundamental to effective leadership in the context of physical exercise and coaching (motivational discourse). This integrated approach contributes to the creation of motivating environments, strengthens bonds between professionals and practitioners, and promotes greater adherence to physical activities (Campos, 2009, 2015; Resende & Castro, 2015).

Below is Figure 2, summarizing the Units of Sense and Meaning of the Clients' narratives/ practices.

Conclusions

This qualitative study, based on Bardin's content analysis technique, enabled an in-depth understanding of the perceptions, strategies, and practices reported by PTs working in the PTS context. The interviews revealed that the work of these professionals transcends the technical prescription of physical exercises, encompassing relational, motivational, and communication dimensions that are crucial for clients' and practitioners' engagement and adherence to physical exercise.

Clients/practitioners' motivation was demonstrated through many factors, often beginning with extrinsic ones -such as commitment to the professional or the pursuit of health-and transforming, over the course of the process, into intrinsic motivations linked to the enjoyment of exercise and personal achievement. The PT's role as a mediator in this transition was described in the narratives of both groups studied. Empathic communication, recognition of efforts, and individualized training were strongly cited elements that strengthen interpersonal bonds. The motivational strategies adopted by PTs are dynamic and tailored to the different profiles of users of the PTS, demonstrating technical competence, emotional intelligence, and sensitivity to the physical and psychological conditions of clients and practitioners. This adaptive capacity is reinforced by professional experience, which proves essential in managing unexpected situations and building an environment of trust and safety. However, clients and practitioners themselves emphasize that experience is only effective when accompanied by ongoing training and an ethical stance.

Adapting workouts to the individual needs of clients and practitioners was a recurring theme in both groups and was considered essential for achieving better results and promoting well-being. Active listening, clear communication, and flexible methods are key strategies that reinforce the practitioner's ability to create a safe, welcoming, and motivating environment. Another relevant point concerns the appreciation of clients' and practitioners' efforts, which are often recognized by practitioners through praise, positive feedback, and symbolic reinforcement. Such practices, in addition to strengthening clients' and practitioners' self-confidence, contribute to building a positive motivational climate. Communication-both verbal and nonverbal-is a central axis of the relationship between personal trainer and client or practitioner. In this sense, appropriate language, active listening, and emotional support were identified as decisive aspects in motivating users over long periods, even in contexts that require adaptation, such as online or home-based training. Interpersonal relationships were described in various ways, ranging from strictly professional attitudes to more affectionate and close bonds. Regardless of the degree of informality, aspects such as respect, trust, and ethics were identified as fundamental to building a solid and functional relationship. Among the various aspects identified, the nationality of the personal trainers was perceived as a secondary factor in the perception of clients and practitioners. Individual characteristics of the professional, such as empathy, expressiveness, and the ability to create connections, were considered more relevant, although cultural elements, such as humor and communication style, can influence initial affinity.

Finally, the essential qualities attributed to PTs by professionals and clients/practitioners-technical knowledge, empathy, active listening, ethics, and adaptability-consolidate the role of the PTS as a space for building meaningful bonds, promoting health, and supporting the autonomy of clients/practitioners. The PTS, therefore, emerges as a strong relational context where physical exercise becomes not just a means to achieve aesthetic or functional goals but a subjective experience of well-being and personal growth, mediated by trained and compassionate professionals. It can be concluded, then, that the success of PTs' work in the PTS is directly related to their ability to integrate technical knowledge with interpersonal, communication, and motivational skills. These competencies enable the professional to create a personalized, client-centered training environment capable of promoting health, well-being, and adherence to physical exercise.

Limitations and Research Proposals

Although some client/practitioner statements were used for in-depth analysis, the main focus of the study is on the PTs' perceptions. This may limit a complete understanding of the relational and motivational dynamics in the context of PTS, given that the client/practitioner experience also constitutes an essential element in this process.

Likewise, the study could have presented a cross-section of client/practitioner perceptions alongside those of PTs, seeking convergences and divergences. This would enrich the analysis and make the findings more robust and representative of the relational reality of PTS.

Qualitative studies with a more diverse sample, including PTs from different regions and sociocultural contexts, are recommended to broaden the representativeness of the data and enable greater generalization of the results. A qualitative methodological approach focused on PTS users, such as thematic content analysis based on client/practitioner statements, should be adopted, or techniques such as focus groups could be applied to explore collective perceptions and social dynamics.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank all volunteers who participated in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

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