Dioneide Pereira da Silva^1*, Glêbia Alexa Cardoso², Juliana Carla Mendes de Melo³, Tiago José do Nascimento Caetano⁴, Paula Gomes da Silva⁵, Nilmara Serafim Chagas⁶, Maria do Socorro Cirilo-Sousa⁶ and José Carlos Leitão^1
*Correspondence: Dioneide Pereira da Silva, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal. Sports Sciences Laboratory, Vila Real, Portugal, Email:

Keywords

Work-related stress, Fitness professionals, Personal Trainer, Occupational Health, Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment

Introduction

In contemporary society, workers undergo numerous changes and adaptations to new technologies and demands, offering an increasingly restrictive and competitive labor market, forcing workers to comply with the logic of a capitalist market (Silva, 2019). This labor market ultimately generates new demands, increasing pressure, consumption, the threat of unemployment, and other difficulties associated with daily life, making workers' lives increasingly stressful (Cruz et al., 2020).

Occupational stress, in particular, arises as a result of this relationship between the individual and their work environment, defined as a set of organic and psychological reactions emitted by organisms exposed to stimuli that irritate and/or frighten (Prado 2016). Scientific evidence shows that occupational stress can have negative consequences for both the individual and the organization. This, in some way, influences the development of psychological illnesses, affecting workers' quality of life, consequently causing dissatisfaction with their lives and compromising their professional performance (Cruz et al., 2020; Prado 2016; Sílva 2019; Valério 2009).

It is important to highlight that, in contemporary society, stress is an increasingly common response to the demands of reality, often manifesting as a source of discomfort in the workplace (Silva, 2019). Furthermore, understanding occupational stress requires recognizing that it is not limited to manifestations of irritability or fatigue. It is, more broadly, a set of psychophysical symptoms associated with a subjective perception of situations considered stressful (Barros, 2013).

According to this evidence, it is observed that a work environment characterized by conflict may foster the emergence of occupational illnesses and trigger feelings of personal dissatisfaction, disinterest, demotivation, and physical and emotional exhaustion. These factors, in general, undermine workers’ self-esteem and self-image, ultimately leading to reduced organizational commitment and a significant decline in work quality and productivity (Carneiro, 2019; Ribeiro, Gomes & Silva, 2010).

Within this context, a high level of occupational stress has been observed, especially among teachers (Cruz et al., 2020). Among them, physical education teachers are particularly exposed to multiple environmental factors that can act as occupational stressors. In outdoor activities, these professionals face adverse weather conditions—such as excessive heat, intense cold, and air pollution—which directly impact physiological stress levels (Fretes et al., 2023; Schulte et al., 2023). Furthermore, constant contact with the external environment can interfere with communication dynamics, requiring adaptations in verbal and nonverbal communication to ensure effective interaction (Resende & Gomes, 2020).

On the other hand, in indoor environments, such as gyms, high noise levels are one of the main sources of stress, being associated with poorer health perception and a higher prevalence of negative psychological symptoms (Pels et al., 2022; Temam et al., 2024). These environmental conditions are part of the professional routine of personal trainers, directly impacting their quality of life, especially in the physical domain.

Daily physical exertion-resulting from the need to use one's own body to demonstrate and monitor exercises-combined with the excessive use of oral communication as an essential tool in interpersonal relationships, can be identified as a significant stress factor (Silva & Nunez, 2009). However, given the diversity of contexts in the field of physical education, it is still unclear whether occupational stress manifests itself differently between school physical education teachers and professionals working as personal trainers.

Therefore, the demands and working conditions of physical education professionals and teachers may differ significantly depending on the professional context, whether in gyms or schools.

Therefore, the demands and working conditions of physical education professionals and teachers can differ substantially depending on the context in which they work, whether in gyms or schools. Developing emotional competencies is essential in physical education, especially in schools. Recent research indicates that such competencies contribute to improved teaching performance, fostering more positive teacher-student relationships and strengthening the motivational climate in the classroom (Granero-Gallegos et al., 2023; Rico-González et al., 2023). Furthermore, interventions that integrate social-emotional learning into physical education classes have demonstrated consistent results in improving students' emotional skills, with positive impact on engagement, positive affect, and motivation to participate in class (Jackson et al., 2024; Sindiani et al., 2025; Tian & Shen, 2023).

For professionals who provide individualized training, such as personal trainers, the quality of the interpersonal relationship with the client/trainer is equally crucial. Evidence shows that a good trainer-client relationship is one of the most important factors in predicting adherence, satisfaction, and better training results (Graßmann et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2024).

Studies show that interventions based on person-centered approaches, such as “motivational speaking,” have been shown to be effective in promoting physical activity, contributing to greater client reflection on their goals and experiences (Zhu et al., 2024), as well as the search for meaning in life (Frankl, 2006, 2014).

Studies seek to understand how spirituality contributes to the health of the body and mind, bringing general well-being, resilience, disease coping, and quality of life (Harvard, 2022; Hill & Pargament, 2003; Hosseinzadeh et al., 2023). Likewise, the literature shows that exercise sessions oriented toward pleasure and positive affective responses increase the frequency of practice and engagement, favoring the maintenance of active behavior in the long term (Teixeira, Bastos et al., 2024; Teixeira, Carraça et al., 2022; Dunton et al., 2023).

Thus, in both school settings and personalized training contexts, the development of emotional competencies and the quality of interpersonal interactions are essential for fostering engagement, motivation, and the positive outcomes of physical activity practice. Together, these factors contribute to significant improvements in both physical and mental health (Yu, Xue, Zeng & Wu, 2024).

In this sense, it is important to further investigate stress levels, life satisfaction, and organizational well-being in the professional practice of school physical education teachers and professionals working in the field of physical activity and health, such as personal trainers. Comparing these two groups will allow for a more comprehensive understanding of the influences of different work contexts and demands on the well-being and mental health of these professionals. The content presented above demonstrates that, although studies addressing occupational stress in educational and fitness contexts exist, research examining these two realities simultaneously is still scarce, which reinforces the relevance of this study.

Based on the aforementioned factors, the following research hypothesis was outlined: Organizational commitment, life satisfaction, and the psychological dimensions of occupational stress in the group of school physical education teachers differ significantly from those in the group of personal trainers. Therefore, the general objective of this study was to compare stress levels, life satisfaction, and organizational commitment in the professional practice of school physical education teachers and personal trainers.

Methods

Participants

The study sample consisted of 146 individuals of both sexes with degrees in physical education (bachelor's and undergraduate degrees) from the state of Ceará, Brazil. The groups investigated were selected through intentional sampling. Of the total, 72 were school physical education teachers working in both public and private schools. 38 were men (ages between 23 and 59 years; M = 34.92; SD = 8.43) and 34 were women (ages between 22 and 47 years; M = 30.02; SD = 7.31). The remaining 74 participants were personal trainers, of whom 33 were men (ages between 21 and 36 years; M = 26.09; SD = 3.32) and 19 were women (ages between 22 and 50 years; M = 29.42; SD = 7.30).

This study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Ceará, Brazil (insert registration number). All participants received detailed information about the risks and benefits associated with the study and signed an Informed Consent Form (ICF), in accordance with Resolution No. 466/2012 of the National Health Council. Furthermore, the study was conducted in strict adherence to the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki for research involving human subjects.

Study Design

After identifying the participants (physical education teachers from public and private schools and professionals working as personal trainers) they were invited to complete instruments designed to assess the variables under study: The Teacher Stress Questionnaire (TSQ), the Organizational Commitment Scale (OCS), the Life Satisfaction Scale (LSS), and, for qualitative analysis, the Professional Stress Questionneire (PSQ).

Instruments and procedures

Teacher Stress Questionnaire (TSQ)

The final version of this instrument consists of 36 items divided into six subscales (Gomes, Cruz, & Cabanelas, 2009). There are two distinct parts: the first aims to assess teachers' overall stress levels on a scale ranging from 0 (no stress) to 4 (high stress). The second part includes 36 items corresponding to the various sources of stress experienced by educators in their teaching methods, answered on a five-point Likert scale (0 = No Stress; 4 = High Stress). The 36 items are classified into six subscales.

Organizational Commitment Scale (OCS)

With a version translated and adapted by Gomes (2016), this scale aims to assess the positive feelings, attitudes, and values professionals hold regarding their workplace (e.g., feelings of pride in being part of the organization, motivation and willingness to make personal sacrifices on behalf of the organization, etc.). Items are answered on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree), and a total score is obtained by adding the results and dividing them by the number of items (average).

Life Satisfaction Scale (LSS)

To assess life satisfaction, the Life Satisfaction Scale (LSS) was used. It was originally developed by Diener et al. (1985) and later adapted and validated for the Portuguese (Simões, 1992) and Brazilian (Gouveia et al., 2009) populations. This scale aims to assess life satisfaction as a cognitive process (personal judgment about life), assuming that it is more relevant to ask individuals for a global analysis of their lives than to assess satisfaction in specific areas of life (for example, "My living conditions are excellent"). The instrument consists of five items, asking individuals to evaluate their lives in general on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = Completely disagree; 7 = Completely agree). The final score is calculated by adding the scores obtained and can range from a minimum of 5 (low satisfaction) to a maximum of 35 (high satisfaction).

Professional Stress Questionnaire (PSQ)

The PSQ assesses how individuals generally feel about their professional activity in relation to general stress levels (Gomes, 2007). It comprises four open-ended questions and one multiple-choice question with scales from 0 to 4.

Statistical Analysis

Initially, the distribution of psychological variables was verified using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test. Subsequently, the internal consistency of the items was assessed using Cronbach's alpha. Data analysis involved descriptive (mean, standard deviation, percentages) and inferential statistical procedures, including the t-test for independent samples and Pearson's product-moment correlation. All analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 26 for Windows, in accordance with the study objectives.

Results

The sociodemographic characteristics of the school physical education teachers who participated in the study are presented in Table 1. The sample shows a relatively balanced distribution between male and female participants, with a slight predominance of men. The age of respondents varied widely, with men being, on average, older and representing a higher proportion of single individuals.

In terms of academic background, most participants held a specialization degree; however, these professionals had, on average, less professional experience than those with only a bachelor's degree. Regarding the workplace, there was greater representation of teachers from public schools, both in terms of age and years of experience. Finally, the daily workload was slightly higher among participants working in public institutions compared to those employed in private schools

Table 2 presents the demographic characteristics of the personal trainer sample. Male professionals predominated, with a lower average age than that observed among school physical education teachers. Most participants reported being single and had a bachelor's degree, followed by a specialization. The average length of professional experience was higher among specialists, suggesting that continuing education may be associated with longer tenure in the field. Regarding their work context, most personal trainers worked in gyms, serving both genders, with a varied work shift distribution, with a predominance of a mixed schedule (morning, afternoon, and evening) (Table 2).

The analysis of psychological variables, presented in Table 3, was performed using the t-test for independent samples. The results showed highly significant differences (p = .000) in most of the variables assessed. It was observed that, among school physical education teachers, those with lower stress levels reported greater life satisfaction and higher levels of organizational commitment compared to their colleagues who presented higher overall stress levels (Table 3).

The comparison between school physical education teachers and professionals working as personal trainers, in terms of life satisfaction, professional experience, and workload, was performed using the t-test for independent samples. The results, presented in Table 4, showed a statistically significant difference only in the variable of professional experience, with a higher average among school physical education teachers. It was also observed that personal trainers reported higher levels of life satisfaction, although this difference did not reach statistical significance (Table 4).

Through the application of the Professional Stress Questionnaire (PSQ), results were obtained for the group of personal trainers, providing an overview of stress prevalence and the hierarchy of the different factors assessed (Gomes, 2007). This survey is relevant, as personal trainers may perceive and interpret potential sources of stress in distinct ways.
Analysis of the minimum and maximum values identified for each main source of stress revealed substantial variation in how these stressors were interpreted. While some professionals perceived them as generating "little" or "moderate" stress in their work, others experienced and classified them as "quite a bit" or "very" stressful.

Table 5 presents the ranking of the aspects experienced by personal trainers as stressors. Overall, 63.62% of participants reported “little” or “moderate” stress, distributed across four categories: sources of pressure and tension, personal consequences, situations of pressure and discomfort, and problem-solving.

Regarding sources of pressure and tension, the most prominent stressors were lack of stability and recognition (42.85%) and pressure for aesthetic results (28.57%), whereas traveling between appointments and lack of professional ethics were less frequently cited (7.14%). When considering personal consequences, psychological stress was the most reported (57.14%), followed by physical stress (21.42%), while 7.14% indicated no serious consequences. With respect to situations of pressure and discomfort, the factors most often mentioned were non-payment (35.71%) and lack of respect for the professional (28.57%). Finally, for problem-solving, 37.51% of participants highlighted raising client awareness about results as the main strategy adopted (Table 5).

Table 6 presents data for personal trainers who reported "fairly" or "very" high levels of stress (31.81% of participants). The main sources of stress coincide with those identified among individuals who reported low to moderate levels, with "lack of stability and recognition" (42.85%) and "pressure for aesthetic results" (42.85%) standing out as the most recurring factors. Regarding personal consequences, "psychological stress" remains the predominant manifestation (42.85%), followed by "physical stress" (28.57%). Regarding situations of pressure and discomfort, "lack of respect for the professional" (57.14%) and "non-payment" (28.57%) predominate, demonstrating that interpersonal conflicts and adverse contractual conditions are significant factors in the emergence of stress. In the item related to problem solving, “customer awareness of results” (42.85%) appears again as the main strategy adopted, indicating a tendency to use coping mechanisms based on communication and management of expectations (Table 6).

Overall, although most participants reported low to moderate levels of stress, a significant proportion of professionals experienced high levels, particularly due to professional instability, pressure for aesthetic results, and situations of devaluation and disrespect in the workplace. These results reinforce the need for attention to personal trainers' working conditions and relational and communication skills, as these factors appear to be crucial for psychological balance and well-being in the workplace.

Discussion

In recent years, occupational stress has gained significant attention in scientific research, particularly in the field of education. Studies have shown that educators experience stress in a multifaceted manner, with physical (sleep disturbances, fatigue, and headaches), emotional (anxiety, depression, and burnout), and professional repercussions that result in decreased well-being, job satisfaction, and a reduced intention to remain in the teaching profession. Such manifestations not only compromise teachers’ health and quality of life but also negatively affect teaching performance and, consequently, student learning outcomes (Madigan et al., 2023; Cavallari et al., 2024; Dreer et al., 2023; Nwoko et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2024; Agyapong et al., 2022, 2023).

Considering the results of this study, higher levels of “inappropriate behavior” and “student indiscipline” were identified as significant sources of stress among teachers, simultaneously associated with lower levels of life satisfaction when compared to personal trainers. This evidence suggests that the professional activity of school physical education teachers is particularly exposed to the influence of these factors, which can be understood as determinants of job dissatisfaction. Furthermore, the results of this research indicate that “time pressure” and “overwork” negatively affect both organizational commitment and life satisfaction among teachers.

The literature confirms that factors such as student indiscipline, time pressure, and overwork are among the main sources of stress for school physical education teachers and are associated with lower levels of well-being and life satisfaction (Carson & Chase, 2009; Martínez et al., 2020; Nwoko et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2024). It is also important to note that school physical education teachers tend to report lower life satisfaction compared to personal trainers, considering the multiple challenges and specificities inherent to the teaching career.

Among school physical education teachers with longer professional experience, a significant correlation was found between organizational commitment and overall stress. This finding indicates that higher levels of organizational commitment are associated with lower perceptions of overall stress. Conversely, the results suggest that professional experience has only a weak association with life satisfaction and overall stress. Therefore, based on these findings, the research hypothesis was partially confirmed.

Regarding the dimension of "personal consequences" among personal trainers, the results indicate that "psychological stress," "physical stress," and "little time for leisure and family" are the aspects that most affect these professionals, making the need for investment in prevention and health promotion measures even more evident (Farias et al., 2023; Jesus et al., 2021; Moniz et al., 2022). It has been found that the more demanding the task, the higher the stress levels (Machango, 2024; Pinto, Menta & Santiago, 2021), and the more compromised decision-making capacity becomes (Correia, 2023).

Considering the comparison between school physical education teachers with "low" and "high" stress, it is observed that all the psychological dimensions of the PSQ (inappropriate student behavior/inaptitude, time pressure/workload, varying student abilities and motivations, teaching career, bureaucratic-administrative work, and inadequate disciplinary policies) significantly differentiate these two groups, as do the results obtained in life satisfaction and organizational commitment. Regarding these last two dimensions, school physical education teachers with "low" stress perceived higher levels of life satisfaction and greater organizational commitment than those with "high" stress.

The comparative analysis between school physical education teachers and personal trainers regarding life satisfaction, professional experience, and workload revealed a statistically significant difference only regarding professional experience. This result corroborates previous observations, indicating that personal trainers generally have lower levels of professional experience compared to school physical education teachers. This evidence is supported by studies that point to the early entry of personal trainers into the job market, often with less experience and still developing their training, in contrast to the greater stability and established career paths of teachers within the educational system (Flores et al., 2023).

Regarding workload, no significant differences were observed between the groups, suggesting that both groups perform their activities within similar working hours and schedules. This finding aligns with the literature discussing the intensification of workload demands in both the fitness sector and formal education, indicating that, regardless of the context, professionals in this field are exposed to extensive and highly demanding work routines (Silva & Gomes, 2022).

These results, when compared to studies conducted with professionals from other fields, such as health, law, and higher education teaching (Sousa, Sobral & Morais, 2023; Moniz et al., 2024; Pinho et al., 2023), reinforce the evidence that stress has a negative impact on professional fulfillment. These findings confirm its inverse association with job satisfaction and well-being, as also demonstrated in previous studies (Fraga, Silva & Marra, 2024; Seabra, 2021; Garcia, Silva & França, 2021).

Conclusions

The results obtained in this study highlight the comprehensive and multifactorial nature of occupational stress, organizational commitment, and life satisfaction among school physical education teachers and personal trainers.

It was found that stress levels, life satisfaction, and professional experience are perceived differently by the two groups analyzed, reflecting the particularities of their work contexts and the specific demands of each profession.

Among school physical education teachers, it was observed that those with higher levels of stress had higher scores in all dimensions of the PSQ, namely inappropriate student behavior or indiscipline, time pressure and overwork, varying student abilities and motivations, teaching career, bureaucratic and administrative work, and inadequate disciplinary policies, when compared to teachers with lower levels of stress.

In the personal trainers group, the main sources of pressure and tension were lack of stability and professional recognition, as well as the pressure to achieve aesthetic results. Furthermore, factors related to psychological and physical stress emerged as the most frequently reported personal consequences by these professionals.

Other relevant indicators, such as non-payment of salaries and lack of respect for professionals, were also identified as recurring sources of discomfort and tension among personal trainers, both those with low and high levels of stress.

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